The question is often raised, "Can a person be good without God?" Secular humanists (including freethinkers and rationalists) have been critical of that old-time-religion mind-set that would answer, "No." Not only do secular humanists not accept most teachings of religion, such as the creationist account of the universe, but they deeply question many of its moral admonitions. So the question is, "Are there alternative humanistic and naturalistic guidelines?" My answer, of course, has always been in the affirmative.
I have suggested in past editorials in Free Inquiry what a humanist morality entails. I have called this morality "eupraxsophy"-good, practical wisdom drawn from science, philosophy, and ethics. Indeed, secular humanist ethics provides a transformational matrix of aphorisms, principles, and values. Among these are the common moral decencies (do not lie, cheat, steal, etc.), which express the principles of moral conduct, historically developed and widely shared by diverse cultures. There is also a set of values that humanists cherish; these are called excellences (rationality, personal freedom, creativity, etc.). I have also acknowledged other widely recognized norms in the civilized world, such as those embodied in the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Humanists emphasize the importance of rational ethical inquiry to resolve moral dilemmas, and they seek to encourage growth and development in the young. Humanist ethics urge individuals to assume responsibility for their own lives and strive to achieve happiness and exuberance. In continuing this exploration, let me suggest still another transformational principle that is basic to morality, what has been called "a Good Will." Indeed, the great German philosopher Immanuel Kant said:
Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification, except a Good Will. . . . A good will is good not because of what it performs or affects, not by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end, but simply by virtue of the volition, that is, it is good in itself . . . like a jewel, it would still shine by its own light, as a thing which has its own value in itself. . . . This then . . . must be the supreme good and the condition of every other. [Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, Immanuel Kant]
I agree with Kant about the importance of a good will, which is intrinsically good in itself, but I submit that we need to appraise it in terms of its consequences as well. For a good will is also good for what it accomplishes, its effect upon other human beings in the communities in which they live. We do not judge an act by its motive or intention alone, but also by its impact upon others in the world.
It is clear that human beings are dependent on other human beings, with whom they can share the joys, sorrows, values, and setbacks in life. They learn by living and doing. We cannot and should not abdicate our responsibilities to make this a better world for ourselves, our families, our friends, and other human beings within our range of contact. This means that we should use our intelligence to weigh alternatives, to balance choices, and to make prudent decisions as they relate to others. We cannot escape from the world. We live within it, and, as such, we have the challenge of improving ourselves as best we can and, if possible, reforming society and working with our fellow human beings to do so. Thus, a good will is also an instrumental good, judged by its consequences in human affairs.
I think that it is important to stress the moral difference between acting according to these principles from an internal motivation to do good because it is our moral duty, rather than from fear of repercussions or consequences if we don't. There is a qualitative moral difference between those who act according to moral principles simply because they fear certain consequences (e.g., the disdain of their peers, the vengeance of a god, or the fall of civilization) as opposed to an inward motivation to simply do the right thing.
The importance of a good will is attested to by countless generations of human beings. It cuts across diverse societies and cultures and appeals to both the religious and nonreligious, for this principle rings true throughout human experience. The person of good will is or should be cherished by the community, though his or her intentions may sometimes be misinterpreted and he or she maligned.
Being of good will means that we are not mean-spirited or surly, despairing or nihilistic, vindictive or hateful. We should try to be affirmative about what life offers, not fearful or defensive; we should be hopeful, not cynical or nasty; we should exude some realistic optimism that we can influence or mitigate evil and improve human affairs. We should strive to resolve our problems and overcome adversity. We should try to select courses of action in the light of both reason and good will. Indeed, this positive attitude is a fundamental principle to which, I submit, we each need to be committed-even if, at times, we are defeated or suffer tragic reversals. By a good will, I mean that we should strive whenever we can to do good. Surely, this includes an obligation to assist those who are in need, including children, the infirm, the destitute-those who suffer and need help. But more than that, we should develop a generalized attitude of sympathy, benevolence, and affection toward others.
Perhaps we need more precise language. A person of good will is well-intentioned and has a loving concern, an empathetic regard, a compassionate interest in other humans, and a genuine desire to do good for them. At the very least, this means to avoid harming or inflicting pain and sorrow, unjust punishment, or violence on them. But more, I submit that people of good will should try to be helpful, regardful of others, even altruistic-not for their own sake or self-interest, not for fame, glory, power, money, or approbation, but for the sake of others.
Perhaps the best term to describe people of good will is caring. We should care about what happens to other sentient beings (all sentient beings, not only humans) when we can-we may not always be able to do so because not everything is within our reach-but we ought to at least strive to do so. The antithesis of this is indifference, hostility, and callousness. For those within the sphere of our conduct or who are affected by it, we should avoid jealousy, envy, and resentment. We ought to have a genuine affectionate regard for them. By that, I mean that we should be happy if our friends, relatives, or acquaintances are happy.
Doing moral deeds may be a source of satisfaction in itself, and performing charitable and philanthropic work-whether the contribution is publicly acknowledged or not-is good not only for the recipients but for the givers. Many have discovered that "It is better to give than to receive."
This sentiment may sound Christian, but it is anything but that. The teachings attributed to Christ insist that belief in Him is the road to salvation; those who do not will not only be barred from the kingdom of heaven, they may be sent through the gates of hell. But I say that we should develop genuine affection for others, even if we disagree with them or if they do not accept our beliefs and values. This is consistent with the biblical injunction in the Old Testament that we should honor and respect "the aliens within our midst," as we hope that they will honor and respect us. The principle of tolerance is essential to moral conduct, and we should apply it even to those with whom we differ; the old adage is to "live and let live." But we need to state this value more positively: We prosper morally, if they prosper; we are exalted in their exaltations; we are pleased if they are pleased. This principle draws on the generosity of the human spirit; it is a mark of a magnanimous personality.
I realize that this attitude of good will may be difficult to apply to all our adversaries and enemies, such as to those who are hostile or commit grievous deeds against us. Every civilized community needs to deal with those who are beyond the pale of civilized conduct and behave intolerably. Yet we should, wherever we can, forgive and forget and not harbor resentment, seek revenge, or exact retribution for its own sake. We should try to negotiate our differences and compromise our own interests for the sake of harmony. We need to transform discord into accord, animosity into respect, confrontation into appreciation, and suspicion into understanding-for persons within our community and the extended community of humankind.
We should consider every human being to have some dignity and value. For those whom we believe are not deserving, we should endeavor to learn about their needs, to accept their indiosyncracies, and try to persuade (not compel) those who differ with us to be open and outgoing, kindly and sympathetic. We need, of course, to be realistic about situations where there are conflicts, a breakdown of communication, and where our differences seem intractable, as in times of war or revolution. Yet even here, we should never abandon lightly our general disposition of good will.
In my view, we can and should love many people in life: people of good will should exemplify the open heart, the beneficent disposition, the truly charitable interest. We should avoid being malicious, spiteful, vengeful, prejudiced, or hateful. In doing good for others, we are ourselves made better; in bestowing gifts where we can, we can grow together, enhancing our lives as well as those of the recipients-our horizons as human begins are expanded along with theirs. If we behave decently, others may appreciate our gestures and behave correspondingly. The milk of human kindness-the empathetic concern for the needs of others-is the bond that enables civilization to consummate the highest virtues of which we are capable. It is the mark of human excellence and nobility. We do not need dictates or commandments from on high in order to express genuine good will. It can be developed in the human community, and it can be nourished in our children by cognitive moral education and love.
Good will not only applies to our relationships with others, but to ourselves. By this, I mean that each of us should try to develop a positive attitude toward his or her own life; we should hope for the best, not the worst. This means that we need to believe in our own powers, to have some confidence in our abilities to achieve some measure of what we want. Thus, each person should recognize that he or she has but one life to live and that he or she should strive mightily to make that life worth living. If we are to lead significant lives, we need to make moral choices and take responsibility for our actions. We need to consider ourselves to be equal in dignity and value to others. We should not sacrifice our will to live and enjoy. We should not be consumed by self-hatred, loathing, or low self-esteem; we should not be overwhelmed by our limitations or inadequacies, our failures or foibles. If we are battered by the blows of fortune, we should not grovel in the mud, supplicating to unknown and unseen forces, but get up and strive to move forward. For every disagreeable day, there is a new tomorrow. We should try to profit from our mistakes, learn where we went wrong, and correct ourselves. Reasonable optimism-realistic but not foolhardy-is essential if we are to create lives that are well-lived.
We should avoid hedonophobia, that is, we should not fear to enjoy life or believe that we are not entitled to do so. We should likewise avoid destructive pessimism, the view that nothing will work out in the end. This is the refuge of bitter people, the haven of the sourpusses of the world. We need a friendly attitude, some wit and humor, laughter, and fun. We should accept the fact that we are not perfect but still able to overcome our errors and misdeeds and move on to a new plateaus of experience. No doubt, we need to work hard if we are to attain our goals, but we also need to take time to smell the lilacs and perfume, to taste honey and nectar. Unlike some moralists, overwhelmed by their sense of duty, I affirm that the pursuit of happiness-exuberance-is morally justifiable and personally enriching.
Accordingly, a good will should be applied not only in our attitude toward others, but in respect to our own wants and needs. Self-interest and altruism are not antagonistic, but complimentary. Under whatever sky you live, you should do the best you can, for other human beings and for yourself. You should consider every moment precious and try to live fully and decently. Thus, we need to cultivate a lust for life, attempting as best we can to realize our highest potentialities, without unnecessary recrimination or self-immolation. A good will can be continuous with the joie de vivre, not alien to it; it can help to consummate a life enriched with beauty and grandeur. A good will in this sense can be overflowing, for it is concerned with realizing the capacity for happiness in one's life and for others. A good will is something that we should impart to children by example and education. And it is an attitude and disposition that we should gladly share with our relatives, friends, colleagues, and fellow humans in the extended community.
How do we ensure social conditions so that well-intentioned persons of good will can be encouraged to develop? In my view, people who are unhappy are apt to be negative and niggardly. I suspect that they need to satisfy their basic needs if they are to discover the billowing fullness of life. To do so requires some satisfaction of their homeostatic, biogenic, and sociogenic needs, including the capacity to develop loving relationships with others, sexual gratification, friendship, acceptance within a community, the development of a sense of self-worth, and creative work-all of which can contribute to self-actualization. The achievement of exuberance, no doubt, is more difficult in overly repressive religious societies, for they seek to restrain our finest human impulses for freedom and achievement. It is easier in affluent, open, democratic societies.
Good will is natural for the exuberant person who has discovered the sheer love of life. Contented at the core, he or she can be deliriously joyful at moments of peak experience, glowing with the vitality of living. Such a person has overcome the corroding sense of sin and guilt that weighs down so many good people and can be released from the stranglehold of repressive religious traditions. At long last, he or she can luxuriate in the goodness of life, can love and be loved, can appreciate the needs of others, and can express the grace of a good will.Aphorisms There are a number of matrix aphorisms and maxims of the good will that we can highlight. We should:
Why
The question is raised, "Why?": Because these, as set forth, are the transformational matrix principles of civilized conduct, and in expressing a good will you not only add to the sum of human happiness, but do the right thing. Indeed, of all human qualities and possessions, a good will is the most cherished.
Paul Kurtz is editor-in-chief of Free Inquiry, professor emeritus of philosophy at the State University of New York at Buffalo, and chair of the Center for Inquiry.
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